In 1969 a coup installed Mohamed Siad Barre as president and, although a harsh socialist regime then ruled the country until its collapse in 1991, many improvements were achieved, particularly in the field of literacy. Barre ruled until he wa sousted and exiled in 1991 when clans from across Somalia, armed and supported by Ethiopia, brought down his regime and successfully ejected him from power leading to the Somali Civil War and the disintegration of central authority.

From Barre's ousting until 2012, Somalia experienced ongoing conflict and instability, with international peacekeeping efforts failing to restore order especially against Islamist militias who gained control of parts of the south, leading to further conflict and intervention by Ethiopian and African Union forces. In 2012 a new, internationally-backed government was formed and is making progress in terms of rebuilding the country's institutions while confronting persistent security threats. This Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) is not only extending its authority across the diverse landscape, but is also addressing the deep-seated issues of corruption and clan-based politics that have historically hindered effective governance. The FGS has made strides in re-establishing diplomatic ties, attracting foreign investment, and regaining a voice on the international stage. However, the path to fully centralised and effective governance remains fraught with challenges, including disputes over resource sharing between federal member states, all leaving Somalia in a fragile state with 6 million people in extreme need of urgent, lifesaving humanitarian assistance and protection (2025).